Nonverbal expressions and gestures of coaches: type, context and observer inference

Purpose: Despite growing recognition of nonverbal behaviours (NVB) in coaching, limited research has examined both their structure during live sport and how they are perceived by observers. Methods: Chapter 4 used an adapted CAIS framework to code 208 video clips from four sports of gestures and facial expressions across coaching behaviours and contexts. Intra-rater reliability was established using ICC and weighted kappa scores. Chapter 5 employed a thin-slice method in which eight participants viewed 15 NVB stimuli (video/image) either with or without contextual information. Interpretive responses were thematically analysed. Results: In Chapter 4, NVBs consistently co-occurred with coaching functions. Deictic gestures aligned with instruction, scowling with scold, and manipulators with silence. Expressions varied by performance state, recipient, and content. In Chapter 5, all participants inferred meaning from NVBs, but anchoring strategies differed. Context participants drew on situational and role-based cues; no context participants relied more on visible features and emotional salience. Conclusions: NVBs in coaching are patterned, context-sensitive, and communicatively rich. Their interpretation is layered, shaped by both behavioural form and available context. Together, the studies highlight the need for coach awareness of expressive behaviour and open pathways for future research into perception, misreading, and meaning making in sport.