Sanctions to sentences: a systematic analysis of two decades of discourse on doping criminalisation

The international debate on the societal and policy implications of criminalising doping has generated a diverse body of academic literature over the past two decades. This scoping review is the first to systematically synthesise this literature, drawing on 49 outputs published between 2003 and 2024. Quantitative mapping and qualitative analysis were used to examine prevailing academic paradigms and how geographic, disciplinary and authorship patterns have shaped perspectives on doping-related legislation. Three overarching categories of societal impacts were identified: positive outcomes (e.g. deterrence and public reassurance), negative outcomes (e.g. disproportionate sanctions and strained healthcare relationships) and moderating factors (e.g. legal frameworks and enforcement practices). The review highlights a reliance on non-empirical outputs and calls for increased empirical inquiry, alongside broader engagement with underrepresented regions and disciplines. These findings underscore the need for more diverse, evidence-informed and interdisciplinary approaches to guide future policy development.